Introduction

Wearing knickerboxers and smoking a cigarette, the New Woman oversees "Wash Day" as a woman in traditional feminine clothing hunches over her laundry. The stark contrast between the two women from this 1901 photograph illustrates the evolving social norms for women during the Progressive Era.

At the turn of the twentieth century, social expectations for white middle-class women in the United States rapidly evolved. Shedding the norms that confined women to the domestic sphere throughout the 1800s, the Progressive Era (1890-1920) allowed women more freedom outside of the home. The rise of the "New Woman" led to the reimagining of women as strong, independent figures. These women rejected the idea that men and women must operate in separate spheres, and as a result, embarked upon traditionally masculine pursuits like politics, higher education, and athletics.[1]  

Prior to this newfound independence during the Progressive Era, women had to rely on men as their connection to the public sphere. Seen as their “protectors,” a man’s duty was to shield women from the impurities that existed outside of the home. Societal norms in the nineteenth century on marriages were clear and rather strict: women had to get married, they were responsible for the household, and men should not be burdened with such trivial domestic daily tasks. Husbands and wives did not share the same troubles.[2] In fact, men, and even some women, did not see the exclusive domestic routine as troublesome at all.  With the changing perceptions of women’s roles at the end of the nineteenth century, the perceptions on the relationships between men and women also witnessed a shift in norms. While marriage was still the expectation for women, marriages in the Progressive Era emphasized equal partnerships, which established that both men and women would make decisions regarding the family and household.[3]

In spite of this progress, the norms concerning women were still incredibly rigid. Etiquette books presented rules for everything from personal hygiene to creating the picture-perfect household. According to their advice, obtaining a husband was supposed to be a woman’s main objective and therefore, the books aimed to mold young women into the ideal bride who would eventually become the quintessential wife. For misses, they both stressed the importance of interacting frequently with courtable young men and encouraged young women to understand their power. Once past marrying age, the books’ guidance shifted from preparing women for marriage and family life to preparing one to cope with the loneliness and disappointment associated with remaining single, otherwise known as “matronhood.” By examining the lives of three norm-defiant women--Isabella Rittenhouse, Jane Addams, and Kate Sanborn, the exhibit will show that regardless of advice that encouraged traditional gender roles, women were able to navigate themselves through these barriers in order to lead the lives they pleased. They were not confined to the rigid relationship norms which valued marriage as women’s high priority.